Citing Your Research
American Psychological Association – APA
Use American Psychological Association (APA) style unless otherwise asked.
APA guidelines regulate the formatting for a piece of writing, but also determine the style of writing. Style deals with choices about language use as opposed to how words appear on the page. When writing in APA Style it is important to:
- Use the first person singular or plural point of view
First person: “In this study, we examined the effects of sleep on memory.” - Use active, not passive voice.
Active: “Participants took a five-question survey to determine their perceived stress level.”
Passive: “A five-question survey was taken by participants to determine individual perceived stress levels.” - Present research in the foreground
Research in foreground: “The results support our hypothesis that amygdala activation occurs when participants view emotionally-charged images.” - Avoid offensive/biased/problematic language
Respectful language: “Participants suffering from alcohol addiction reported higher levels of perceived stress.”
Offensive/biased language: “Alcoholics reported higher levels of perceived stress.” - Use discipline-specific terminology
Discipline-specific terminology: “Participants suffering from Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) reported reduced participation in activities they used to enjoy.”
Layperson terminology: “People who were really, really sad said they didn’t do things they used to have fun doing anymore.” - Use “clear, concise, and concrete” language (Paul Price)
Clear, concise, and concrete: “The hippocampus was stimulated during memory retrieval”
Confused: “The hippocampus was kind of turned on when people tried to think of things that they had learned before they were being tested.” - Avoid poetic language
Scientific language: “Participants suffering from Generalized Anxiety Disorder report feelings of despair.”
Poetic language: “People with anxiety shared that they felt an impending sense of doom, like a tidal wave rushing to shore, and felt themselves spiraling, spiraling ever deeper into the abyss.”
International Phonetic Alphabet – IPA
The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is a system used to write out sounds, with separate vowel and consonant charts. Here are some general tips:
- Slashes / / are used to show the abstract representation of a sound
- Brackets [] are used to show the sound that is actually produced
- When in doubt, use brackets (slashes are only used in very specific contexts)
- “This is an example:”ðɪs ɪz æn ɜksæmpəl”
IPa Resources
Other Conventions
- Asterisk (*): indicates either ungrammatical or reconstructed utterance
- Ungrammatical: *You not would say this
- Reconstructed: *ɑpieɪ is what we think the word for “suffering” would’ve been in Proto-Indo-European
- Separate words that are being analyzed from the rest of the text, either with quotes or italics
- Example: to see this trend, we looked at 100 instances of the word study
- Use headings in lab reports and longer research papers
- Typical sections: introduction, methods, data/results, discussion, future research